Bruce Springsteen’s Born in the USA (1984) album
26 August 2024
The Strategy Behind What You Wear When You Don’t Know What To
LOUIS SUMMERFIELD
The marketing strategy behind jeans throughout the twentieth century.
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The origins of jeans and denim, the distinctive material they are made from, is dubious. Some argue it originated from the French city, Serge de Nimes, in the 1500s.
Others say the combination of cotton and wool is a British product, but initially called ‘de Nimes’ in an attempt to sound more ‘cosmopolitan’ and cultured. There’s even a suggestion that it came from Genoa, exported by the British, who abbreviated its place of origin to form the word ‘jean’. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word was in circulation by 1567.Whatever its origin, it is certain that denim was unique in its design, comprised of a twill of cotton fibres: the singular horizontal white thread, the ‘weft’, is woven with two vertical blue dyed threads, the ‘warp’, creating the recognised twill pattern with the reversed white side.
Despite its European background, jeans later became the anthropomorphic embodiment of ‘Americana’.
Even more impressively, it maintained this label throughout the 20th century, where the meaning of ‘Americana’ has changed. Jeans have transformed from a derivation of hard labour for the working class, to the symbol of the American cowboy and ‘western lifestyle’, to an emblem of youthful rebellious counterculture in the 1950s, to finally becoming a staple in every major fashion house, found on runways and red carpets.
So how did brands, in particular Levi’s use strategic marketing to manoeuvre themselves close to the pulse of these historical movements in American culture?
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THE BIRTH OF LEVI’S
In 1868, a local tailor, named Jacob Davis — a Jewish immigrant — received a commission from a wife who wanted to gift her husband a pair of trousers, suitable for his job in the mining industry. The new-founded design featured metal rivets, typically used on horse blankets, to reinforce the corners on the jeans’ pockets, where there tended to be most wear and tear. This significant structural change revolutionised jeans forever. Davis knew he had created a product functionally superior to anything else similar on the market, but he didn’t have t he money to patent the design himself. In steps the brand’s namesake, Levi Strauss. Strauss was a wealthy denim supplier and was evidently impressed by Davis’s design, as in 1873 they were granted patent 139121. Levi Strauss & Co. was born. Yet, by 1890, due to their patent expiring and thus entering the public domain, they realised they needed to rebrand their product, from workwear overalls to 501s, to distinctively setting them apart from a soon-to-be competitive market.
Throughout the following decades, the brand targeted the exponentially growing market of labourers, selling their jeans at outlets and supply stores, capitalising on the American ‘Goldrush’ era, where there was a significant increase in demand for workwear supplies. During that period, over a hundred thousands migrants travelled to California alone with the hope of finding gold. The denim workwear market was so prevalent that this is where the term ‘blue collar workers’ derives from, due to the distinct blue pigmentation of jeans.
In short, jeans had established themselves not only as an item of workwear, but a symbol of the working class.
They continued to be the predominant consumer, until the 1930s, coinciding with the Great Depression (heightening in 1933). 24.9% of the nation’s total workforce was unemployed. It was at this point it became apparent Levi’s needed to shift their marketing strategy to target an alternative consumer. One which was more affluent who could still afford their products — the middle class.
THE PERFORMATIVE WORKING CLASS & WANNABE COWBOYS
Towards the end of the 1930s, everything Western was becoming increasingly popular. Rodeo and ranches were in. To the extent that by 1940, over 25,000 families a year were visiting ‘dude ranches’. These were advertised as ‘western-themed’ holiday parks where' stressed-out middle class’ could act out their fantasies of a simpler life of hiking, riding and fishing. With this surge in popularity of seeking the western lifestyle, Levi’s positioned itself as the ‘all-American’ clothing choice, advertising the fact that it was worn by the ‘all-American hero’: the cowboy. In this way, Levi’s could appeal to a wider market with their product, one which was particularly more affluent, especially in the aftermath of The Depression. This coincided and was catalysed by the wave of Cowboy Western films in Hollywood. In John’s Stagecoach (1939) iconic cowboy John Wayne wore 501s, further spiking their popularity. It is also interesting to note that there has been a resurgence of the western-cowboy aesthetic in the current cultural climate. From Pharrell Williams’s latest Louis Vuitton fashion show to country music making a bigger splash in pop-music and the charts — even Beyonce came out with a country album. Cultural anthropologist Ted Polhemus puts this down to the fact that the cowboy, in his words, was ‘the first universally accepted Working-Class Hero’.
Within the political and social context, it promotes an important and self-evaluating question which doesn’t sit right with me. Throughout different eras of cultural trends, there is a tendency to resort to ’performative working classism’ — when then upper classes adopt the ‘apparel and mannerisms’ of the working class. Clothing trends are the main culprit as they are the physical manifestation of not only how you appear, but more importantly, how you want to be perceived. This trend of workwear-cultural appropriation, particularly the utilisation of jeans, is a conscious attempt to demonstrate that everyone comes from the same place, working their way up with no original position of privilege. ​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​
FROM FEMINISM TO PATRIOTISM, THE LADY LEVI’S
Drawing back to the ‘dude ranch’ outings, Levi’s realised these were family outings, and therefore not just male orientated. Middle-class women were also encouraged to participate, in turn introducing a new consumer into the market. Ranches created a more equal space where women could ‘pull on a pair of her husband’s Levi’s jeans’ and exercise her urban frustrations — fulfilling a similar role to her male counterpart. While working class women still might have associated jeans with hardship, the more privileged considered them as revolutionary modern attire, worn by independent women, such as film stars like Katherine Hepburn. Jeans even manifested themselves into what Simone de Beauvoir called ‘studied carelessness’ where the Seven Sisters’ women colleges would use scuffed up mens jeans to demonstrate that the most difficult actions could be carried out with the ‘appearance of ease and effortlessness’. Evidently, the combination of the two left a prevalent gap in the market for denim womenswear and consequentially Levi’s launched the ‘Lady Levi’s’ or ‘701s’ (1934) — the first ever line of jeans designed entirely for women. The brand manoeuvred jeans to the ‘fashion-forward’ choice for women and society to embrace. In 1935, an advertising spread in Vogue titled, ‘What! Overalls in Vogue?’ A major progression towards the formation of the casual womenswear market.
In 1941, the US joined World War II and the perception of jeans for women was not only considered functional but more importantly patriotic. For instance, ‘Rosie the Riveter’, an ‘allegorical cultural icon’ who represents the women who worked in the factories and shipyards during World War II, wore denim overalls. In this way, during the war the U.S. government designated jeans as the ‘staple work clothing’ for the war effort, distributing them to military outposts worldwide. This marked the start of where the line merged between workwear and leisurewear. Veterans returning from war continued to wear them in daily life, further enhancing this association with patriotism, conveying Levi’s as the all-American brand. Yet, even so, women were still becoming increasingly included within the marketing strategy of jeans, recognised as a vast market of potential buyers. From the start of the 50s, Levi’s adverts targeted housewives, with a campaign slogan “So Smart, So Practical”. They valued the women’s market, demonstrated by the fact they listened to their female customers and tweaked the relevant aspects of their product. For example, the jeans’ ‘button fly’ was deemed uncomfortable for women, resulting in change to a zipper — an element which is unisexually standardised today​.
REBELLIOUS COUNTERCULTURE OF THE YOUTH
The cultural and social landscape of the 50s and 60s in America was a lucrative one, thanks to the post-war booming economy. For the first time in history, the teenager was no longer considered a child, nor an adult. They had defined their own social class, symbolised and overtly stated by their own clothes and music: the era of anti-establishment rock’n’roll. Jeans enabled teens to visually differentiate themselves from adults, who were dressed in respectable attire, by effectively ‘dressing down’ and essentially using 'performative working class’ as a method of rebelling against the majoritive middle class status-quo. Jeans had transformed its’ identity into a representation of almost ‘urban coolness’, self-empowering individuals and rejecting ulterior authority. Jeans brands, especially Levi’s, capitalised on this recently expansive market. For instance, they released ‘Elvis Presley Jeans’ for Jailhouse Rock (1956). Young actors like James Dean and Marlon Brando had a similar effect. These rebellious poster boys were the new cowboys for the disenfranchised youth. Overall, during this period, the market flourished. Levi’s introduced new styles and fits to cater to this ‘broader range of customers’. It was so successful that their sales reached over $100 million in the decade of the 60s, with 350 million pairs sold in 1971 alone.
JEANS BECOME THE OBJECTIFICATION OF ‘SEX’
Whilst there was an initial introduction in the 50s, with Marilyn Monroe sporting Levi’s in Clash by Night (1952) and more famously in The Misfits (1961), the parallels between jeans and sex were predominantly established in the late 60s and 70s. Marketing strategy had pivoted significantly towards the female market, in contrast to the previously male dominated ‘cowboy-rockstar’ market. Elio Fiorucci, who started the brand under his namesake which subsequently relaunched in 2017, claimed to have produced the first ‘luxury’ skinny jean in 1970. This was only the beginning, with many more established fashion houses venturing into the jean-casual wear market. Since this point, Levi’s had a somewhat monopoly over the jean industry, reaching $1 billion in revenue by 1974. One company which flourished during this period was Calvin Klein. In 1978, Klein himself, claimed sales of 200,000 pairs of his jeans within the first week they were introduced. And by 1979, they had sold approximately $70 million worth of stock in women’s jeans. Klein was quoted stating ‘jeans are sex’, accompanied by his now more tainted 1980 campaign, featuring a 15-year-old Brooke Shields. The sexually under-toned slogan read ‘Do you know what comes between me and my Calvins? Nothing’.
Similarly, in 1976, Levi’s published its popular ‘Route 66’ advert. Directed by Hollywood director Adrian Lyne, it portrays the story of two attractive young women whose car breaks down on Route 66 and are then rescued by a good looking truck drive. All three then embark on a stereotypical road trip of diners and rock concerts. All things that scream Americana. Furthermore, ‘sex appeal’, as a marketing tool, was not exclusive to one gender either. Levi’s circled back to its previous rebellious counterculture imagery in the 50s. The Nick Kamen ‘Laundrette’ commercial (1985) was broadcasted nationwide in the UK on cinema screens and TVs alike. It featured a 23-year old Kamen undressing down to his boxers in a crowded 50s laundrette, set to the backing track of Marvin Gaye’s ‘I Heard it Through the Grapevine’. With a handsome ‘boyish’ face and jet black quiff, the parallels between Kamen and Elvis Presley or Marlon Brando were obvious, both campaigns which had worked well for Levi’s in the past. The ad had great success with sales in 501s increasing by 800% that year, to the extent that the ad had to be axed on the air because Levi’s couldn’t keep up with the consumer demand.
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JEANS OBJECTIFYING THE WEARER
Although there is evidential misogyny in jeans being labelled as ‘sex’, the intentionality seems to be possessed by the wearer, not the beholder, in comparison to other types of clothing.
With comparisons to the current culture’s infatuation with shape-wear, particularly Kim Kardashian’s line SKIMS, jeans were one of the first and rare types of clothing where a woman could empower herself and display her figure without fear of assault to some degree. Unbelievably however, this idea has been used to work against her. For example, in 1998 the Italian Supreme Court ruled that a rape conviction should be overturned because the victim was wearing jeans. The justices’ claimed that the victim must have consented because ‘it is a fact of common experience that it is nearly impossible to slip off tight jeans’.
TOWARDS THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Having had decades of successful strategic marketing, jeans were now being transformed into a marketing tool by individuals who wanted to project a similar image. By the 1980s, Levi’s and more broadly jeans had done exactly that, embedded itself fully within society. They were even used to ‘improve’ individuals’ optics in political campaigns. For instance, Jimmy Carter wore jeans throughout his trail in 1976, to emphasise his humble roots as a ‘former peanut farmer’. Within the music industry’s conventional marketing approaches, jeans continue to serve as a key visual marker. Bruce Springsteen’s Born in the USA (1984) album expresses, despite right-wing media outlets claiming otherwise, criticism of the tropes of American patriotism and the stereotypes projected onto society’s standard of masculinity. The album cover features the iconic backside area of his skinny Levi 501s, behind what appears to be a reference to the American flag. The homoerotic undertones of the skinny jeans were interpreted as a further visual response to what Springsteen was trying to address in the album.
Even the notoriously ‘exclusive’ luxury fashion industry was coming round to the idea of jeans becoming a staple piece. In 1988, for her first ever Vogue cover, Anna Wintour placed a model in skinny jeans and a Christian Lacroix jacket. It was so much of a shock that the printers even called to double check it was, in fact, the right image. This momentous point in fashion marked the sudden growth of luxury designer jeans, even placing them on the catwalk. From Tom Ford’s $3,000 skinny jeans being adorned by superstars, such as Madonna and Gwyneth Paltrow to Stella McCartney wearing skinny jeans to the Vanity Fair Oscars party (2001). The craze launched its way well into the 21st century, with Topshop Baxter skinny low-rise jean selling over 18,000 pairs every week for the first nine months of their release (2005); and the silhouette still accounting for around 38% of the women’s denim market (pre-COVID). The wave in popularity of the skinny style did not stop at womenswear. Trainspotting (1996) popularised skinny jeans in menswear. The cult film started the movement to the extent that costumer designer, Rachel Fleming, would restitch women’s jeans or cut apart men’s jeans as the concept had never been introduced into the men’s market before. The year Trainspotting was released coincided with Levi’s greatest year of annual revenue, achieving over $7.1 billion.
CONCLUSIONS — FUNCTIONALITY OVER FORM, OR IS FORM FUNCTIONALITY?
The strategic marketing of jeans throughout the 20th century has been one of the most successful product ‘rebrands’ in history. Brands such as Levi’s, Calvin Klein and Fiorucci, have transformed a product, once born from utilitarian origins, into one of the most ubiquitous fashion statements. This evolving model of merging the line between functionality and form can be seen to be replicated by other brands in more recent years with one of the most popular being Carhartt. Their streetwear line, Carhartt Work In Progress (WIP), further illustrates the modern day obsession with workwear, suggesting a culture shift in desiring clothing which exceeds its appearance, but has some form of utilitarian value. This trend can also be seen in streetwear’s current infatuation with ‘techwear’. It highlights not only the current precedent in streetwear of function over form, but maybe to some extent, function has become the form.